Psychology unit 3

Part 11

Causes of forgetting

1. Inadequate impression at the time of learning.

E.g. improper learning forced learning, etc..

2. Lapse of time

3. Rise of emotion

4. Poor health and defective mental state

5. Inadequate practice of learning

6. Interference of association

Theories of learning

- Trace decay theory

- Interference theory

- Repression theory

Trace decay theory

* According to many psychologists , time is the cause of much forgetting , what is learnt or experienced is forgotten with the lapse of time. This process is explained through a process known as decay of the  memory trace.

* It say that , learning results in neurological changes leaving traces will get  weaker and finally fade away .

* With the passage of the time through disuse, these memory trace will get weaker and finally fade away.

* The conclusion of this is that the older an experience the weaker its memory and as time passes , the amount of the forgetting increase.

Interference theory

* Forgetting is a result of some memories interfering with others.

* Proactive interference.

* Old memories interfere with ability to remember new memories.

* Retroactive interference.

* New memories interfere with ability to remember old memories.

Repression theory

* This theory was put forward by Freud's  psychoanalytical school of psychology

* According to this theory school is a mental function that safeguards the mind from the impact of painful experience.

* As a result of this function , we actually push the unpleasant and painful memories into the unconscious  memory and this leads to forgetting things.

Psychology unit 3

 Part 10 

Theories of Memory…

Theories of memory provide abstract representations of how memory is believed to work.

1. Theories of general memory functions

2. Information processing theory

3. Levels of processing theory

1. Theories of general memory functions

Theory of general memory function focuses on three distinct processes of memory these are……

1. Encoding

2. Storage

3.  Retrieval

1. Encoding is the process of receiving sensory input and transforming it into code which can be stored.

2. Studied is the process of putting coded information into memory.

3. The travel is the process of gaining access to stored coded information when it is needed.

2. Information processing theory

This theory was developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin ( 1968 )

according to this theory memory start with memory input from the environment.

This input is held for a very brief time.

Information that is attend into and recognise may be passed on to the short-term memory where it is held for 20 to 30 seconds.

When the short term memory is rehearsed then it pass along Long term memory.

The information which is placed in long term memory , will be organised in categories,  where may  resides for days, months, years or for a lifetime. When we remember something , a representation of the item is retrieved from long term memory.

3. Levels of processing theory

According to this theory , incoming information can be worked on at different levels of analysis, the deeper analysis goes the better the memory.

Perception :- it gives us an immediate awareness of the environment.

Structure :- features of input (what it looks like, or sounds like) are analysed.

Meaning :- meaning of the input is analysed.

* Analysis to the  deep level of meaning gives the best memory.

* Routine happenings of daily life are not process deeply.

Method of memorizing……

Success in the process of learning depends on the methods of learning adopted by the learner. They are ………

1) whole and part method

2)  Spaced and unspaced method

3) Repetition and practice

4) Grouping and rhythm

5) Making use of the principle of association

6) Recitation

7) Utilizing as many senses as possible

8) Pulling at all together

9) Funnel approaching

10) Acronym

11) Acrostic

12) Mnemonics 

      Forgetting

Definition

Forgetting is the lost permanent or temporary of the ability to recall or recognise something learnt earlier.

                       Mann - 1967

Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience , when attempting to do so or to perform an action  previously learned.

                               Drever - 1952

Types of forgetting…

1)  Natural forgetting

2) Morbid forgetting (abnormal) 

1) Natural forgetting

It occurs with the lapse of time in a quite normal way without any intention of forgetting on the part of the individual.

2) Morbid forgetting (abnormal) 

Person deliberately tries to forget something is called morbid forgetting (repression).

Psychology unit 3

 Part 9

             Memory

It is regarded as the special ability of our mind to conserve or store what has been previously learned or experienced to recollect or reproduce it after sometime. Memory is  a complex process , which involves learning , retention , recall and recognition.

Definition

Memory consists in remembering what has previously been learned.

                           Woodworth and marquis

                                          1948

The power that we have to store on experiences, and to bring them into the field of consciousness something after experiences have occurred, is termed  memory.

                                      Rayburn 1956

Types of memory………

1. Immediate memory or  sensory

2. Short - term memory

3. Long - term memory

Immediate or sensory memory

It is that memory , which helps an individual to recall something in a split second after having perceived it. Immediate memory is needed , when we want to remember things for a short time then forget it , which help us to learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy.

Short term memory

It holds a relatively small amount of information, about seven items , for a short period time 20 to 30 second time though not nearly as short-lived as immediately memory.

Long term memory

It has the unlimited capacity to store information , about  store information for days , months , years and even a lifetime.

Nature of memory

Following are the fundamental characteristics of memory process……

1. Memory involves input - registering the information.

2. Storage - it is either temporary or permanent.

3. Output - it involves retrieval.

Other factors involved in memory process are…

* Learning or registration

* Retention

* Recall 

* Recognition

Psychology unit 3

 Part 8

Theories of learning

2. Theory of Operant Conditioning

The theory of learning by operant conditioning was given by BF Skinner. He said that the man is an active organism , and not a victim of his environment. He does not wait for the stimulus ; instead he acts or operates on the environment, so as to change it in some way. Thus , he called it as operant behaviour. 

According to Skinner, operant behaviour is determined by the events or consequences  that follow the response. If the consequences favourable , the individual repeat the same, it this case, the consequences are said to have provided to positive reinforcement and cause repetition of the behaviour. If the  consequences favourable, the individual repeat the same, in this case, the consequences are said to have provided to positive reinforcement and cause repetition of behaviour . If the consequences are unfavourable, they reduced the chance of the same behaviour from getting repeated . In such cases , the  consequences are said to have provided negative reinforcement and reduce the chances of the behaviour  from recurring again.

Operant conditioning is also called a type - R conditioning, to emphasize the effect of the response on future behaviour . In this way, Skinner said that learning is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

Educational implication of operant conditioning theory

1. The key concept of Skinner theory is reinforcement ( the process by which a stimulus increases that probability that preceding behaviour will be repeated ). In order to enable an individual to learn , the correct responses must be suitably rewarded or positively reinforced.

2. The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in behaviour modification. We have to find something , which is rewarding for the individual whose behaviour we wish to modify , wait until the desired behaviour occurs immediately reward him when it does.

3. This theory emphasizes the importance of schedules, in trying to teach a particular behaviour , great care should be taken for the proper planning of the schedules of  training.

4. This theory advocate the avoidance of punishment of unlearning of undesirable behaviour and for shaping the desirable behaviour.

5. This theory also state that......

The learning material is so design that it produces fever chances for failure and more opportunity for success.

6. The learner is given the feedback concerning the accuracy of his learning.

7. The learner is able to learn at his own space.

4. Theory of insightful learning (gestalts psychology)

Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany in 1912 by Max Wertheimer and his colleagues.

 The basic idea behind the registered idea that anything cannot understand by a study of its parts , but only by viewing in its totality.

The learner while learning always perceives the situation as a whole. After studying and evaluating the different relationship in the situation , he takes the proper decision in an intelligent way.

Gestalt psychologist used the term insight to describe the perception of the whole situation by the learner and his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships.

According to this theory insight is depending upon the following factors.....

* Past experiences

* Basic intelligence of learner.

* Repetition

* Trial and error process in the initial stage does not last long.

Educational implications of the theory of insightful learning

This theory states that trial and error learning must be minimised.

Subject must be presented in Gestalt form, also in organisation of the syllabus and planning of the curriculum, the Gestalt principle should be applied.

This theory has bought motivation to the forefront. The child should be motivated by arousing interest and curiosity, in order to make learning goal-oriented and effective.

The learner should give plenty of opportunity to use mental abilities.

5. Cognitive theory of learning (observational learning) or learning through imitation (social learning theory)

According to psychologist Albert Bandurs ,  a major part of human learning consists of observational learning ; learning through observing the behaviour of another person called a model.

According to bandura observational learning takes place in four step........

1. Paying attention to perceiving the features of the another person behaviour.

2. Remembering the behaviour.

3. Reproducing the behaviour.

4. Being motivated and carried out the behaviour.

Summary of various theory of learning

Psychology unit 3

 Part 7

Theories of learning

1. Trial and error theory of learning

This theory was propagated by Edward Lee Thorndike, according to this theory; learning is nothing but the stamping in the correct responses and stamping out of the incorrect responses through trial and error.

Thorndike said that the following components or elements are involved in the process of learning.....

 Drive 

Goal

Barrier

Random attempts to overcome the barriers.

Selection of the correct responses.

Fixation of the correct responses.

Based on this theory, thorndike put forward the following laws of learning.....

1. The law of readiness

2. The law of exercise or practice

3. The law of multiple responses

4. The law of attitude

5. The law of associative shifting

Educational implication of thorndike theory.......

1. According to this theory , when a child is ready to learn , he learns more quickly and effectively. He warns the child should not be forced to learn when he is not ready and also not to miss any opportunity of providing the right learning experiences , when the child is ready to learn.

2. The task of the teacher is to motivate the students by arousing their attention , interest and curiosity so that they want to learn.

3. The teacher must try to strengthen the connection between the stimuli and responses , through repetition and practice.

4. The child must be provided with learning experience, which gives him a sense of satisfaction. The child must be suitable recorded as relevant to make learning effective.

5. The learner should try to see the similarities and dissimilarities between different kinds of responses to stimuli and by comparison, and try to apply I the learning from one situation to the the problem before arriving the correct one.

6. The learners should be encouraged to perform his task independently , he must try various solution to the the problem before arriving the correct one.

2. Theory of classical conditioning

Theory of classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan Pavlov , a Russian physiologist . Pavlov while studying the physiology of digestion , found that behaviour can be classical conditioned.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning, in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally bring about that response.

Neutral stimulus

Stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

Unconditioned stimulus

Response that is natural and needs no training.

Conditioned stimulus

A neutral stimulus that has been paired with  an unconditional stimulus ( UCS ) to bring about a response only by unconditional stimulus.

Conditioned response

A response that , after conditioning , a previously , neutral stimulus.

Extension

The decrease in frequency and eventual disappearance , of previously conditioned response ; one of the basic phenomena of learning.

Spontaneous recovery

The re - emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Pavlov theory has also been called type S conditioning to give the importance of stimulus. The theory of conditions as advocate by Pavlov, considers learning as habit formation and it is a stimulus - response learning  , where in place of a natural stimulus like food , water , sexual contact , is etc…@ and artificial stimulus like the sound of the well , sight of the light of a definite colour , etc… Can evoke a response when both the artificial  stimulus and natural stimulus are brought together several times , the learner  becomes conditioned to response to the situation.

Educational implication of classical conditioning theory

* Fear , love or hater towards a particular subject is created through conditioning.

* On the other hand , intresting and effective methodology in teaching along with sympathetic treatment can have a desirable impact on the students through the process of conditioning.

* The theory of classical conditioning emphasizes that the students should be exposed to positive stimuli in order to develop desirable habits ,  interests and attitudes in them.

* Condition can also be used to remove  unhealthy attitudes , superstitions , attitudes and fears from the mind of the students by exposing them to positive stimuli.

Psychology unit 3

 Part 6

                 Transfer of Learning

Definition

Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge ; training and habits acquired in one situation to the other.

                Sorenson -1948

The carry over of the habits of thinking , feeling or working of knowledge or of Skills from one learning area to another is usually referred to as the transfer of training.

             Crow and Crow - 1973

Types of transfer

There are three types of transfer of learning

Positive transfer 

It is said to be positive when something previously learned benefits performance or learning in any situation.

Negative transfer

When something previously  learnt hinders performance or learning in a new situation , we call it negative transfer.

Zero transfer

In case , the previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a normal situation , there is said to be zero transfer from the previous situation to the new one.

Essential implication of transfer of learning

The following suggestion can help the learner to achieve maximum previous transfer______

1. While engaging in learning the learner should try to integration of the theoretical studies with the practical experiences.

2. Learning should be properly correlated with the life experience , environmental surroundings and other area of study and knowledge.

3. Rote learning should be avoided.

4. Learning should never hesitate to utilise the learning of one field in the learning of the other fields.

5. Learning should try to learn the proper knowledge and insight in the making the difference between the positive and negative transfer of his learning.

6. Learners should have positive attitude during learning.

Study habits

A student must follow the point for her learning to be effective________

1. Being self prepared :- sound physical and mental health are needed for good study.

2. Planning and organization:- the student nurse should have what time table for whole day with a definite period for study.

3. Clarity of purpose:- the nurse should be clear about , what she is learning , how the piece of learning will help her in the carrier.

4. The student nurse should always look for the basic facts of the study and give the importance to those principles.

5. Notes taking :- while studying notes should be written . Notes should be brief and concentrated on the important ideas.

6. Review and over learn:- the rate of forgetting is far in excess of what is retained , therefore, constant review is required to retain the essential of any subject.

7. Paying more attention to the important words charts tables and formulas.

8. Proper physical surrounding for the study.

9. Interrelationship and correlation between the topics and subjects will help the study more effectively.

Theories of learning

There are five theories of learning____

1. Trial and error theory of learning

2.  Theory of classical conditioning

 3. Theory of operant conditioning

 4. Theory of insightful learning 

5. Observational learning.

To be continued in next part.......😊

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Psychology unit 3

 Part 5

                    LAW Of LEARNING

Law of learning are follows _____

1. law of readiness

Learning is takes place best, when a person is ready to learn. Some sort of preparatory attitude or a mindset is necessary.

 2. law of effect 

A successful reaction give satisfaction to the individual at the same time and an unsuccessful reaction gives annoyance.

3. Law of exercise/ use

Learning will become stronger by practice and use.

 4. law of frequency 

Law of frequency is correlated to law of use . The more frequently a subject is practiced ,the stronger understanding and memory happen.

5. Law of disuse

If any person learn something and not utilise it then it will be forgotten.

6. Law of recency

The law of recency is  correlated to law of disuse. The recent is exercise; the stronger is the connection between the learner and subjects.

7. Law of primary

The first experience and act are important and attractive more attention.

8. Law of purpose

Learning become easy  by making a definite purpose or goal , then student give importance to learning.

9. Law of association

It is on the basis of association of ideas that we can explain why one Idea gives a way to the other.

Psychology unit 3

 Part 4

                              LEARNING

Learning is the natural gift of human beings. It is very important characteristic of human beings. An individual starts learning after entry of this world or in the mother womb. Our personality attitude, skills, habits,knowledge Intreste and character is largely the result of learning . It play  an important process in human behaviour.

Difinition

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitude . It involves new way of doing things and it of operate individuals attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour.  It enables him to satisfy interest to attain a goal.

                     ( Crow and Crow - 1973 )

Nature of learning

* Learning involves those experience and trainings of an individual which helps him to produce change in his behaviour .

* It brings changes in behaviour but it is not necessarily mean these changes always bring improvement or development in the positive direction it may be negative also.  

* By learning something and individual can adopt in any situation.

* All learning is goal oriented and purposeful.

* Learning help in proper growth and development of individuals.

* Learning help in in growing personality.

* Learning is a continuous process till date it is not limited in any age, race, sex and culture.

* It is a very comprehensive process which covers nearly all cognitive , conative and affective of human behaviour .

Types of learning________

1. Stimulus response learning

In this type of learning connection of sensory and motor system may be able to occur.

 2. Perception learning

Sight, hearing ,test, smell and touch are considered as the five gateway of knowledge. All knowledge is based on the sense perception.

 3. Verbal learning 

All learning taking place in formal education is verbal learning . Signs, pictures ,symbols ,words, figures ,sound employed by the individual are the essential instrument in the process of verbal learning.

4. Motor learning 

When learning involves the muscles or bone movements like walking, swimming ,playing to sports and instruments are examples of motor learning.

5. Concept learning 

Learning we learn all things with regions and brief explanation. Once a concept is formed an individual manipulates it in language and thinking.

6. Problem solving learning

Problem solving learning is a critical type of learning . It required cognitive ability like thinking ,reasoning and imagination etc.

7.  Attitude learning 

Much of  learning is based on the attitudes because of the formation of attitude we show favorable or unfavorable response to various objects , person or situations.

8. Paired associated learning

 In this type of learning, tasks are presented in such a way that may be learned by reasons of their associations.

9. Other types of learning

It includes visible learning, auditory learning, Kinetic learning ,etc., are the examples of other types of learning.

Learner and learning

There are some basic quality of learner that can be considered as the learners equipments to observe their knowledge in learning.

# The basic quality of the learner is cognitive as well as a appetitive faculties.

# These faculties will help the nurse or guide the learner as they deal with the learning process.

# The cognitive faculties are five senses ,memory, imagination and intellect.

# All of these faculties  are related to the basic operation of the human brain and necessary learning process.

Factors influencing learning

Learners physical health

Physical health of the learner is an important factor for learning. Sensory organs defects, malnutrition, lack of sleep, fatigue are some of the physical condition to affect the learning.

Learners mental health

If the learners are not mentally fit then they cannot learn anything easily. Mental factor like fear, worries, persistent day dreams, feelings of loneliness and inferiority complex are affect learning.

Basic potential of learner

Learners innate ability and capacity for learning.

Learner's general intelligence , knowledge, understanding skills ,etc.

Age and sex

Age important factor for learning. The old people face many problems in learning new things. 

Although sex is not an important factor , certain differences in interest and aptitudes are found between the two to sexes.

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Psychology unit 3

 Part 3

               PERCEPTION

When our sense organ come in contact with the world and stimulated by external stimuli and receives sensation , it results in perception. Interpretation gives meaning to sensation and we became aware of objects.

Definitions

The process by which the individual organize and interprets sensory information is called perception.

Principles of perception

Individuals tends to organize environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or whole according to certain principal some of the important principles are as follows:------------

1. Principle of figure ground relationship

According to figure ground relationship a a figure is perceived in a relation to it's background.

The perception of the any object or figure in terms of colour size shape and intensity. It depends upon the figure ground relationship

Principle of closure

In this type of principle while confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to  complete the pattern or sensory gaps and feet and perceive.  It as meaningful whole.

Principal of group

Principal of group have tendency to perceive system in organised and meaningful pattern it may be based on____

Similarity:-singular of grouped together ( group of dots)

Proximity:- the object of a closed or grouped together (8 lines).

Continuity:-the continuous object are grouped together.

 Principle of Simplicity

By by this principle we can separate object or things in simplest form.

Principle of contour

Principle of contour is based on the boundary between the figure and it's background. It is totally depends on the outline of the object or figure.

Principle of context

Perceptual organisation is also governed by the principle of context . 

Example-----

An examiner may award higher marks to the same answer sheet in a pleasant context then in an unpleasant context.

Principle of contrast

A contrast things or object attracts our mind first, so that we give more attention towards that things. Therefore it carry different perceptual affects.

Principle of adaptability

Adaptability principle show that , stimuli is totally depends upon the adaptability of perceiver. If a man or individual adapt to run in bright light will perceive normal light as quite dim.

Factors affecting perception

Sense organ 

Perception depends upon the sense organs , on which the stimuli act and sensory neurons, which transmits the nerve impulse from the receptor to the sensory area of the brain.

Brain

Perception depends upon the functioning capacity of sensory area and association area of the brain.

 Memory image of the past experience

Memory image of the past experience help us in the understanding of the object or stimulus before us.

 Personal interest and mindset acquired interest

We perceive those things clearly and quickly which are concerned with our interest and mind set.

 Needs and desire

Our needs or desire also modify your perceptions, besides; our beliefs ,opinions and cultural values also modify our perception of things , situation and objects.

Errors in perception

 Errors in perception the perception enable to identify accurate and smooth functioning of stimuli, however some errors can occur in the process of perception___

Illusions

When the interpretation of a particular stimulus goes around it gives a wrong perception or illusion.

E.g.

When we look from afar in the desert, we see like like there is  water but in reality it is not water.

Hallucination

It is major errors of perception. In which we sees or hear something that is not seen or heard by anyone around us.

E.g

 Sometimes we thought that someone is calling us but in reality no-one is calling us.

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Psychology unit 3

 Part 2

DURATION And DEGREE of ATTENTION

Span of attention

The maximum amount of material that can be attained in one period tension is equal to span of attention.

Duration of attention

Duration of attention refused to how long one can attend to an object without a break.

Sustained attention

To sustain attention , is to concentrate one's activity continuously upon some object or problem. The individuals attention always remains on track and activity proceed systematically without any serious distraction.

Shifting attention

In this type of attention  we give  attention to any body or any object  in  shift . It  means, it is not continuous attention . It  is not a longer duration of  attention.

Division of attention

In this in this type of attention we give attention to two or more task or work simultaneously in same time.

Alteration in attention (distraction)

It means any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws attention from the object which we wish to attend. 

 These type alternation in attention  reduce the efficiency of work.

Sources of destruction

There are mainly two sources of distraction_____

1. External factors or environmental factors

2. Internal factors

External factors

Noise , music , improper lightening unfavourable temperature, etc.,

Internal factors

Emotional disturbances, ill health, lack of motivation, fatigue,etc,.

Types of distraction_____

1. Continuous distraction

2. Discontinuous distraction

Continuous distractions

The distraction is continuous in nature; experiment have shown that adjustment to continuous distraction take place quickly.

Discontinuous distraction

It is a regular; it interferes with the work because of the impossibility of adjustment.

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Psychology unit 3

 Part 1

                           Unit - 3

                   

              COGNITIVE Processes

Introduction

Attention the focus of conscious on a particular object or idea at a particular time, to the exclusion of other object or ideas.

Definitions

It is defined as a process ,which compels the individual to select some  particular stimulus according to his  interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimulus present in the environment.

                       Sharma RN 9067

Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather upon another.

                     Dumville - 1938

Types of attention

Voluntary attention (volitional)

Involuntary attention (non - volitional)

Voluntary attention

It demands a conscious efforts  on our parts. For example solving an assignment problem in maths, answering a question in an examination needs  voluntary attention.

 It is further subdivided into two categories ______

implicit volitional attention 

explicit volitional attention

Implicit volitional attention 

A single act of will is responsible for arousing attention.

explicit volitional attention

It is obtained by repeated acts of will. One has to struggle hard for keeping oneself attentive; it requires a strong will power keen attention and strong motives for accomplishment of the task.

Involuntary attention

It aroused without the play of will or without making a conscious effort on our parts , for example , we give involuntary attention to loud sound,  bright light, strong odors.

Determinants of attention or method of arousing attention or factors and condition favourable for capturing attention

Certain factors for produce and control the condition of attention in a person. These factor are classified as external (objective)- those found in one's environment and internal (subjective )-those within the person himself . The method of securing attention are based upon the external and internal factors of attention.

External factors are conditions

Nature of the stimulus:- an attractive stimulus should always be chosen for capturing maximum attention.

Intensive the stimulus:- in comparison to a big stimulus and intensive stimulus attract more attention of an individual.

Size of the stimulus:- in comparison to small  object the bigger object attracts more attention.

Contrast change and novelty:- change and variety strike attension more easily than routine. Novelty means something new or different , it attracts individual very easily.

Location of the stimulus:- the location of the stimulus also affect attention for example visual stimuli.

Repetition of the stimulus:- a repeated stimulus attracts our attention. We may ignore a stimulus at first instance, but then it is repeated several times it captures our attention.

Movement of the stimulus:- a moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than a stimulus that does not move.

Definite form of the object:-  a sharply defined object attracts our attention more than broad indefinite object.

Isolation of the stimulus:- isolation is an important external factor to attract the attention.

Internal factors or conditions

A person attention to a stimulus depends not only upon the characteristics of the stimulus or the environment condition but also upon his interest , motives ,basic needs and urges,etc.

Interest and attention:- We give attention to those object which we are interested then those in which we are not interested.

Motives:- the basic drives and urge of individual are very important in securing attention example like hunger, thirst ,fear,etc.

Mental setup:- a person always attends to those object towords which his mind has set. 

Past experience:- learning and previous experience facilitate attention.

Emotion:- the emotional state, in which a person determines attention.

Habit:- a man develop the habit of  attending to necessary and desirable things and on the other hands also develops the habit of not attending to unnecessary and undesirable things.

Aim:- according our aim human will attend the activities.

Meaning:- in comparison to the meaning of stimuli; meaningful stimulus attracts the attention.

Natural tendency and temperament:-both are important internal factors which attracts attention.

Besides the condition described above many other factors influence attention such as heredity ,education, family ,schools, society training,etc,. which have a wide role on attention.

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Psychology unit 2

 Part 3

                   RIGHT and LEFT HEMISPHERE

# Cerebral cortex is responsible for many higher order function like language and information processing. The cerebral cortex is divided into sensory, motor and association areas.

# Sensory area receives input and motor area control movement of muscles.

# Association area is involved with more complex functions such as writing.

# The occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain.

# The outermost part of the brain is a thick piece of nervous system tissues, is divided into two hemispheres, left and right connected by a thick layer of a cells called the corpus callosum.

ASSOCIATION CORTEX

# It deals with more complex, integrative functions such as memory, emotions, reasoning , will, judgement, personality traits and intelligence.

The association areas are:----

# Somatosensory association areas permits to determine, the exact shape and texture of an object without looking at it.

# Visual association areas relates present to past , visual experience with recognition and evaluation of what is seen.

# Auditory association areas determines if a sound is a speech, music or noise.

Psychology of sensation

Sense organ are gateways of knowledge without the vision touch, hearing, smell and taste. We shall know nothing of external world. By virtue of send organs alone do we know the world arround us.

Sense organ consists of the receptors , specialised sensitive cells are associated with the ending of sensory nerve fibres and various accessory apparatus and tissues which contribute to the effectiveness with which sense organ function.

Muscular control of behaviour

Our behaviour involves action of different parts of your body . Our muscles are responsible for the bodily movement internal and external 

The muscles control is the lost when the nerve  centres or fibres are injured or diseased with exercises the muscles become fatigued . In fatigue, the muscles loose contractibility . By the rest their strength and  capacity are restored.

 Muscle stone means , the redness of the muscles to contract. It ensure smooth and ready responses . It is the tone of muscles to contract. Patients are likely to have defective muscles bone which causes difficulties  in digestion of food , elimination of waste, resting and relaxation. This should be appreciated by the nurses.

The Glandular Control of behaviour

There are two major system for sending to the body muscles, glands and organs . One is the nervous system and the other is the endocrine system. The endocrine system is made of numerous gland that are located throughout the body . These glands secrete various chemicals called hormones which affect organs, muscles and other glands in the body. The hypothalamus, which is located in the lower middle part of the brain, controls  much of the endocrine system  by regulating the pituitary gland which is located directly below and outside the brain.

Psychology unit 2

 Part 2

             NEURAL IMPULSE

Neurons are the receivers and transmitters of message. These message are always in the form of electrochemical impulse.

Enlargements of the axon endings of transmitting neurons called boutons, contain neurotransmitter chemicals, which are stored in small vesicles.

With the help of the release of the release of a neurotransmitter into the synapse, one neuron is capable of sending it's message on to many other neurons.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons is called synapse. The small space between the axon terminals of one neuron and the cell body or dendrites of another is called the synaptic cleft. Neuron conducting impulses towards the synapse are called presynaptic neurons and those conducting impulse away are called postsynaptic neurons.

Nervous system

It is the master controlling, communicating and regulatory system in the body . Nervous system controls and coordinates all mental activity including thought, learning and memory.

Psychology unit 2

 Part 1

Unit - 2

             

              Biology of Behaviour

Body mind relationship

Behaviour that is elicited by a stimulus is known as response. Behaviour has cognitive, affective and conative components. The process or results of the unification of these components into a whole is called integrated response.

In psychology we study about human behaviour both body and mind. Body is represented by the physical states and bodily functions. Mental like strong feelings, emotions, attitude, motives, thinking,etc. Relationship between body and mind effect in health and illness. By knowing about the relationship between body and mind nurse should understand the patients physical and psychological problems. So nurse should try to understand patients feeling and she can achieve her goal easily.

Genetic behaviour

Heredity

It refers to the biological process of transmission of characteristic from parents to their children through genes.

The life cycle of an individual being with the fusion of sperm and ovum . The origin of human life can be traced to a single cell called zygote is produced. The genes , which are carries of distinctive traits are present both in the sperm and ovum.

Environment

The child inherits the traits and characteristics of his parents and forefathers through genes at the time of conception is all due to heredity. Environment is most important factors of human life and behaviour. If the mother is pregnant then everyone should try to give her a better and healthy environment because it affects both the mother and child. Environment play an important role in human life not only duration of pregnancy it also important after the delivery. Child learn everything from the environment.

Interaction between heredity and environment

Each individual enters in the world with certain heredity characteristic  transmitted to him through his parents . He grows up to him through his parents.He grows up in a certain environment with it's human, social and materials surroundings. Everything he does as a child or adult results from the complex interaction between heredity and environment.

Brain and Behaviour

1) The entire behaviour is effectively managed and controlled by the co-ordination and functioning of the nervous system.

2) The proper development of nervous tissue and nervous system helps in proper development of intellectual thinking.

3) The nervous system is composed of organs, particularly the brain, spinal cord, nervous and ganglia.